The Useful Fiction That Made Europe Governable

Voltaire says the Holy Roman Empire was not holy, not Roman, not ancient, and not an empire Source trail 0:00 Okay, good morning. So, today we are doing the Holy Roman Empire. Now, last class we did the Byzantine Empire, which is considered the continuation of the Roman Empire in Eastern Europe. The Holy Roman Empire is conside... . The joke matters because the lecture says the joke is true. The empire starts in 800, when Pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne in Rome, and the reversal is already visible: instead of an emperor anointing the pope, the pope anoints the emperor Source trail 1:27 And this marked a turning point in Western history, because this was really the first time that the pope could anoint a monarch. Before, it was the emperor who anointed the pope. Now, it's a bit reversed, and this shows... . The question is why a conqueror as powerful as Charlemagne would accept that arrangement.

Charlemagne does have ordinary power. He innovates militarily, helps make armored knights central to Europe, and builds cathedrals. But the cathedrals show that power is not only force. Their acoustics make the priest's voice bounce through the building until parishioners feel surrounded by the voice of God Source trail 4:04 It is designed in a way that when the priest speaks, his voice is projected all around the cathedral, and the walls bounce the voice back. And so the parishioners, the people who listen to the priest, they feel they're... . The building is a machine for awe Source trail 2:394:04 introduce the idea of armored knights, which became the standard military doctrine and practice in Europe for centuries. And the idea of the knight would also pave the way for feudalism in Europe. And these are topics w...It is designed in a way that when the priest speaks, his voice is projected all around the cathedral, and the walls bounce the voice back. And so the parishioners, the people who listen to the priest, they feel they're... . It makes unity bodily before it becomes political.

The normal civilizational recipe has three ingredients: temperate latitude, a major river, and natural boundaries Source trail 5:1211:45 look at the four major civilization empires of early human history, mainly Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, and China, we will discover that there are three major similarities among all four. Okay? The first, as you ca...Latitude. You need a temperate climate. You need natural boundaries. And you need a major river. And this will allow civilizations to rise and prosper. The great irony here, of course, and we will learn about this later... . Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, China, and even the United States fit the model Source trail 6:32 Okay? And from this map, you can see very clearly these three characteristics for Egypt, right? Egypt has the Nile surrounded by natural boundaries, the desert, the Sahara Desert to the west, these mountains, then prote... . They can grow food, communicate through river systems, defend themselves, and become wealthy and unified.

Europe does not fit. It is too far north, full of internal barriers, weak in major river systems, and exposed to steppe pressure. Rome itself was not really a European empire; it was Mediterranean Source trail 9:10 It was extremely hard to unite Europe. Please remember, Rome was not a European empire. It was a Mediterranean empire. That's a huge difference. Okay? So, throughout most of its history, Europe was divided into differen... . Western Europe is therefore a continent of local rulers, castles, forests, mountains, and fiefdoms. Even Charlemagne, with the strongest army in Europe, has to use alliances, treaties, marriages, and friendships.

That is why legitimacy becomes the core technology Source trail 9:1016:44 It was extremely hard to unite Europe. Please remember, Rome was not a European empire. It was a Mediterranean empire. That's a huge difference. Okay? So, throughout most of its history, Europe was divided into differen...Okay? But they keep up the pretense of having an empire because again, in Egypt, what matters is not territory or military or power or resources. What matters the most is legitimacy. And the idea of the Holy Roman Empir... . You cannot compel every local power into one Europe. You have to make them believe you are the legitimate ruler. The Holy Roman Empire is therefore closer to a confederation than a centralized empire Source trail 15:26 Okay? But now they're brought into the orbit of this new Frankish Empire. Okay? But again, and this is the Frankish Empire at the time of Charlemagne when he creates the Holy Roman Empire. But again, because this is not... . Its emperors are elected, its kings have voting power, and it can disintegrate while still preserving the idea of empire because the idea itself confers legitimacy.

There is a reversal buried inside the geography. Europe's disadvantages later push it toward innovation. The same continent that is divided, poor, exposed, and inconvenient will eventually conquer the world because disadvantage forces cultures to solve problems Source trail 11:45 Latitude. You need a temperate climate. You need natural boundaries. And you need a major river. And this will allow civilizations to rise and prosper. The great irony here, of course, and we will learn about this later... . The lecture does not develop that later story here; it plants it as a future explanation for the Renaissance, Enlightenment, and industrial transformation.

The official church story says Jesus redeems humanity, the disciples spread the gospel, persecution is overcome by faith, and Christianity triumphs. The lecture does not leave it there. A peasant anti-pagan religion should not easily conquer Rome. Culture is persistent. Source trail 21:42 going on but the Christians are armored by their faith and their love of Jesus and the miracle that is God. So, triumph and convert all of Rome into Christianity. Now, Christianity is the official religion of Rome and n... People do not usually surrender inherited gods, rituals, and identity because a better doctrine appears.

The alternative explanation begins with Roman-Jewish conflict. Jews are monotheistic, refuse emperor worship, and are spread throughout the empire. Some Jews want assimilation into Rome, but Jewish messianic expectation points toward victory over Rome. Jesus becomes useful because he is a prophet of peace, mercy, and forgiveness Source trail 27:46 And, so, um, his brother James led his movement called the Poor of Jerusalem. Later on, they'll be called the Abianites, okay? And, these are the people who will influence the Islamic religion. But, there were other gro... . Paul can redirect revolt into heaven, mercy, and a Roman-compatible faith.

That makes the early Catholic Church look very different. It is an alliance-building institution, an elite church social club for Jews and Romans Source trail 29:00 Show mercy. Because what mattered is not what happens here, what matters is what happens in heaven, alright? So, Paul of Tarsus, backed by the Roman state, started this religion as a way for Jews to practice their faith... to work together. The provocation is not that belief is fake. It is that belief becomes politically powerful because it solves an imperial problem Source trail 29:0030:12 Show mercy. Because what mattered is not what happens here, what matters is what happens in heaven, alright? So, Paul of Tarsus, backed by the Roman state, started this religion as a way for Jews to practice their faith...Does that make sense? Now, what's important for us to understand is there are other Christian factions during this time, but because the Catholic church, the beginning, the portal Catholic church, it's backed by the Rom... . A sacred movement becomes an infrastructure for peace between populations that otherwise keep producing revolt.

Then the church solves the next Roman problem: migration. The so-called barbarians are not invaders in Jiang's distinction. They are migrants seeking a better life and willing to assimilate. Christianity offers an assimilation path, much like churches can help immigrant students enter American social life. The new convert may begin with material motives, but conversion demands the surrender of old community, tradition, and identity. Sunk cost turns that loss into zeal. Source trail 35:06 And you are often dubious and skeptical because children like to rebel against their parents. But, if you convert to Christianity, if you do so out of your own choice, well, then you are fully committed now, okay? And t...

The church also manufactures elite continuity Source trail 37:28 So it's possible to switch leaders if the leaders aren't performing a good job. What the church does is, in exchange for joining the church, the church can make these leaders, who again are only temporary, into a heredi... . Outsiders have two old paths upward: church and military. Barbarian leaders are often temporary, elected for the moment. The church can make them hereditary elites, giving their children inherited status. That bargain absorbs migrants into Rome and gives the church immense legitimacy, but it also requires local autonomy. The church becomes powerful by letting local elites in Source trail 37:2838:57 So it's possible to switch leaders if the leaders aren't performing a good job. What the church does is, in exchange for joining the church, the church can make these leaders, who again are only temporary, into a heredi...If you let in local elites, you have to give them autonomy. And, towards the end of the Roman Empire, there are five major churches that rule collectively. The major church is in Rome, okay? Again, the leaders, all thes... , not by crushing them all at once.

Late Roman Christianity is not originally one smooth centralized machine. There are major churches in Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem Source trail 38:57 If you let in local elites, you have to give them autonomy. And, towards the end of the Roman Empire, there are five major churches that rule collectively. The major church is in Rome, okay? Again, the leaders, all thes... , with local doctrine and autonomy. Rome is primary because Rome had been the capital. But when the capital moves to Constantinople in 330 Source trail 40:19 But, it was understood the primary church was Rome because Rome was the center, the capital, of the Roman Empire. And because of this, the bishop here is called the Pope in order to distinguish him from the other bishop... , Constantinople begins asserting authority through orthodoxy.

Doctrine is power. Source trail 40:1941:40 But, it was understood the primary church was Rome because Rome was the center, the capital, of the Roman Empire. And because of this, the bishop here is called the Pope in order to distinguish him from the other bishop...And, at this time, when the Nicene Creed is first formulated, most people, most churches, do not buy into the Nicene Creed. They do not buy into the Holy Trinity. But, Constantinople sees the power of the Catholic Churc... Constantinople wants to impose orthodoxy, and the Nicene Creed wins because empire can enforce doctrine. Later, as Byzantine military power declines, Rome uses the iconoclasm controversy to push back. The dispute over images is not only about images Source trail 41:4043:04 And, at this time, when the Nicene Creed is first formulated, most people, most churches, do not buy into the Nicene Creed. They do not buy into the Holy Trinity. But, Constantinople sees the power of the Catholic Churc...You cannot paint God. You cannot paint Jesus. Okay? And, the Church in Rome, the Pope, saw this as an opportunity to push back because this was actually a very unpopular decree. And this created a major conflict between... . It is Rome's opportunity to regain independence and lost authority.

Charlemagne arrives as the perfect opportunity. Rome can sponsor a rival Roman claim in the West Source trail 43:04 You cannot paint God. You cannot paint Jesus. Okay? And, the Church in Rome, the Pope, saw this as an opportunity to push back because this was actually a very unpopular decree. And this created a major conflict between... , one that competes with Byzantine legitimacy and raises the prestige of the Roman church against Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The eventual Great Schism is still ahead, but the basic difference is already visible: Rome wants the pope to be first among equals Source trail 45:39 Rome asserts that the Pope is the first among equals, okay? So the Pope has the ultimate authority. The Pope is a true representative of God on Earth. Everyone else is lesser than the Pope. Whereas the Orthodox Church a... , while Constantinople's Orthodox model keeps the churches equal.

The motives are not mysterious once the model is visible. Charlemagne wants legitimacy, unity, and differentiation Source trail 47:21 And this has been true for kings throughout human history, okay? Why did King David sponsor the writing of the Bible? For these three reasons. Why did Augustus Caesar sponsor the writing of the Iniat? For these three re... . Pope Leo wants authority, military protection from enemies, and a Roman claim strong enough to compete with Byzantium Source trail 49:01 But in this process, you always have a faction who refuses to accept the authority of the pope, and this will lead to civil conflict. So, before Pope Leo made Charlemagne emperor, he was almost assassinated by his enemi... . The coronation is therefore not a pious decoration placed on top of power. It is the transaction that lets both sides make a new political world.

Here the lecture states its method openly: ideas move history Source trail 50:26 I want to show you also, that the idea of the Holy Roman Empire comes from Augustine, okay? One thing that you will learn in this class that's very different from other history classes you will take is the power of idea... . The Holy Roman Empire is not explained only by economics, kings, or armies. Augustine writes City of God after the sack of Rome in 410 Source trail 50:2651:45 I want to show you also, that the idea of the Holy Roman Empire comes from Augustine, okay? One thing that you will learn in this class that's very different from other history classes you will take is the power of idea...And so what a lot of people start to believe is that the pagan gods are enacting revenge vengeance against Rome for disavowing them. In other words the Christian god is the false god. The pagan gods are the true gods. A... , when pagans can claim that the Christian God failed and the old gods are taking revenge. Augustine answers by splitting reality into two cities.

Rome is the city of man: temporal, imperial, full of kings trying to outdo one another. Jerusalem is the city of God: spiritual, heavenly, outside ordinary historical struggle. Rome tries to make an end of history through Pax Romana. Jerusalem steps out of history Source trail 53:03 And that is what we should be pursuing. Okay? So Rome is trying to create the end of history meaning that it is trying to create an eternal peace. Right? What is called the Pax Romana. The emperors are trying to be the... through faith, salvation, and redemption. The Catholic Church becomes the new Jerusalem on earth Source trail 53:03 And that is what we should be pursuing. Okay? So Rome is trying to create the end of history meaning that it is trying to create an eternal peace. Right? What is called the Pax Romana. The emperors are trying to be the... .

That is how an idea becomes available for later politics. Charlemagne has City of God read to him and makes it the empire's intellectual framework. Four hundred years before Leo and Charlemagne, Augustine has already imagined the shape they can implement. Source trail 54:14 In other words Charlemagne and Leo worked together to create the Holy Roman Empire in order to achieve Augustine's vision of heaven on earth. was an intellectual blueprint for the Holy Roman Empire. Okay? Does that make... Without that imagined world, they could not have imagined the Holy Roman Empire. Source trail 54:14 In other words Charlemagne and Leo worked together to create the Holy Roman Empire in order to achieve Augustine's vision of heaven on earth. was an intellectual blueprint for the Holy Roman Empire. Okay? Does that make... The fiction comes after the idea.

Now Voltaire's line can be proven. The empire is not holy because holiness is pageantry Source trail 55:27 You need someone to imagine the idea before you can actually implement it on earth. All right. So let me conclude by going back to Voltaire's quotation that we looked at at the beginning of class. The Holy Roman Empire... : pope and king pretend the church is in charge so legitimacy can pass from church to ruler. It is not Roman because the Catholic Church imitates Roman bureaucracy and Senate-like legitimacy, but Roman culture is already dead Source trail 58:13 So it's not holy. Everyone pretends the church is in charge but it's not really. Okay? Roman. So the authority of the Catholic Church comes from the fact that it is the direct descendant of the Roman Empire. In fact the... . It is not an empire because the emperor lacks absolute will Source trail 59:30 Okay? So the Roman Empire died a long time ago. The Roman Empire died a long time ago. Okay? So the Byzantines were an empire because they had an imperial bureaucracy and its own military that could enforce its will on... and needs allies, princes, and electors.

The fiction still does real work. It lets pope and emperor display alliance, create unity, and hide conflict under a sacred surface Source trail 57:00 And after Charlemagne what we'll see is that they don't get along. Because the pope insists on having power over the emperor. The emperor insists on having power over the pope. But not only that remember the pope and th... . After Charlemagne, pope and emperor fight over who rules whom. Bishops and prince-electors have their own ambitions. Europe looks peaceful because the story says it is one Christian order Source trail 57:001:00:36 And after Charlemagne what we'll see is that they don't get along. Because the pope insists on having power over the emperor. The emperor insists on having power over the pope. But not only that remember the pope and th...So the Holy Roman Empire was a useful fiction for its time in order to present the idea of legitimacy and unity across a divided Europe at war with each other. All right. Okay. So next class we'll do the Vikings. All ri... , but underneath it remains full of war, competition, and local autonomy.

The final student question makes the machinery concrete. Why would prince-electors accept the emperor? Because the fiction legitimizes them too Lens point legitimacy-fiction A useful fiction governs where force cannot scale: it gives divided actors a shared meta-reality in which local rule, sacred authority, and imperial unity can all feel legitimate enough to cooperate. Source trail 1:01:30 Okay. That's a really good question. Okay. What's the relationship of the prince -electors to the emperor? Okay. Um so this is a really interesting question. Okay. So let's think about this if you are a prince -elector.... . Catholicism helps a local prince hold the throne, unite the people, and stay safe from rivals. The church, in turn, becomes the freelance imperial bureaucracy of Europe Source trail 1:01:30 Okay. That's a really good question. Okay. What's the relationship of the prince -electors to the emperor? Okay. Um so this is a really interesting question. Okay. So let's think about this if you are a prince -elector.... . There is no effective emperor, so priests become the local interface Source trail 1:02:55 Okay. And it does that through its local churches. Right? The priests. Because if you think about it um the people are interacting with the local priests not with bureaucrats. Right? So through the priests you can colle... : they know the people, collect information, help taxation, and shape thought.

That is the useful fiction. No one gets everything they want. Local princes demand autonomy. The church and emperor want authority. Europe remains divided. But the fiction gives everyone enough legitimacy to keep participating in the same world Lens point legitimacy-fiction Legitimacy fiction becomes real when a story invented to solve a political crisis changes what later actors can feel, say, inherit, punish, or obey. The fiction is not harmless because it is invented; it becomes force when it reorganizes the field of action. Source trail 1:02:55 Okay. And it does that through its local churches. Right? The priests. Because if you think about it um the people are interacting with the local priests not with bureaucrats. Right? So through the priests you can colle... . It does not end conflict. It gives conflict a shared stage. Source trail 1:02:55 Okay. And it does that through its local churches. Right? The priests. Because if you think about it um the people are interacting with the local priests not with bureaucrats. Right? So through the priests you can colle...